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In the psychology of perception and motor control, the term response priming denotes a special form of priming. Generally, priming effects take place whenever a response to a target stimulus is influenced by a prime stimulus presented at an earlier time. The distinctive feature of response priming is that prime and target are presented in quick succession (typically, less than 100 milliseconds apart) and are coupled to identical or alternative motor responses. When a speeded motor response is performed to classify the target stimulus, a prime immediately preceding the target can thus induce response conflicts when assigned to a different response as the target. These response conflicts have observable effects on motor behavior, leading to priming effects, e.g., in response times and error rates. A special property of response priming is its independence from visual awareness of the prime. ==Response priming as a visuomotor effect== In 1962, Fehrer and Raab〔Fehrer, E., & Raab, D. ''Reaction time to stimuli masked by metacontrast.'' In: ''Journal of Experimental Psychology'', Nr. 63, 1962, p. 143-147.〕 reported experiments where participants were required to press a single key as quickly as possible upon presentation of a visual target stimulus. The visibility of the target was strongly reduced by so-called metacontrast masking (see below). The authors found that the response times were independent of the subjective visibility of the target, i.e., responses to well-visible targets were just as fast as those to nearly invisible targets (Fehrer-Raab effect). The term response priming was first employed by Rosenbaum and Kornblum〔Rosenbaum, D. A., & Kornblum, S. (1982). A priming method for investigating the selection of motor responses. Acta Psychologica, 51, p. 223-243.〕 with respect to an experimental paradigm where different aspects of motor responses were primed by visual stimuli. The modern procedure of response priming was developed in the 1980s and 1990s by Peter Wolff, Werner Klotz, Ulrich Ansorge, and Odmar Neumann at the University of Bielefeld, Germany.〔Klotz, W., & Wolff, P. : ''The effect of a masked stimulus on the response to the masking stimulus.'' In: ''Psychological Research'', Nr. 58, 1995, p. 92-101.〕〔Klotz, W., & Neumann, O. : ''Motor activation without conscious discrimination in metacontrast masking.'' In: ''Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance'', Nr. 25, 1999, p. 976-992.〕〔Ansorge, U., Klotz, W., & , O. : ''Manual and verbal responses to completely masked (unreportable) stimuli: Exploring some conditions for the metacontrast dissociation.'' In: ''Perception'', Nr. 27, 1998, p. 1177-1189.〕〔Ansorge, U., Neumann, O., Becker, S. I., Kälberer, H., & Kruse, H. : ''Sensorimotor supremacy: Investigating conscious and unconscious vision by masked priming.'' In: ''Advances in Cognitive Psychology'', Nr. 3, 2007, p. 257-274.〕 The paradigm was developed further in the 1990s by a research team led by Dirk Vorberg at the University of Braunschweig, Germany.〔Vorberg, D., Mattler, U., Heinecke, A., Schmidt, T., & Schwarzbach, J.: ''Different time courses for visual perception and action priming.'' In: ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA'', Nr. 100, 2003, p. 6275-6280.〕 Typical time course of a trial in a response priming paradigm. Here, the participant responds as quickly as possible to the shape of the target stimulus (diamond or square) by pressing the assigned response key. Shortly before, a prime is presented (also a diamond or square) that influences the response to the target. The time interval between prime onset and target onset is called the "stimulus-onset asynchrony" (SOA). In many response priming experiments, the target also serves to visually mask the prime. Therefore, a second task is often employed where participants are asked to identify the masked prime. b) Prime and target are consistent when assigned to the same response, and inconsistent when assigned to different responses. c) The visibility of the prime can be strongly influenced by masking effects from the target. In all response priming paradigms, participants have to respond to a specific target stimulus. In a simple experiment, this could be one of two geometric stimuli, each of which is assigned to one of two response keys (e.g., diamond - left key; square - right key). The experiment consists of a large number of trials where the participant presses the left key upon appearance of a diamond, and the right key upon appearance of a square, as quickly and correctly as possible. In each trial, the target is preceded by a prime that is also a diamond or square, and therefore able to elicit the same motor responses as the target (Fig. 1a). If prime and target are linked to the same response (diamond preceded by diamond, square preceded by square), they are called "consistent" (also "congruent", "compatible"); if they are linked to different motor responses (diamond preceded by square, square preceded by diamond), they are called "inconsistent" (also "incongruent", "incompatible"; Fig. 1b). The time interval between onset of the prime and onset of the target is called "stimulus onset asynchrony" (SOA). Typically, SOAs up to 100 milliseconds (ms) are employed. Priming effects occur when the prime influences the motor response to the target: consistent primes speed responses to the target, whereas inconsistent primes slow responses (Fig. 2). Priming effects in response times are calculated by taking the difference between response times in inconsistent and consistent trials. Apart from their effects on response speed, primes can greatly affect the rate of response errors (i.e., erroneous responses to the target): consistent primes rarely lead to errors, whereas error rates can become very high for inconsistent primes. In response times as well as error rates, priming effects typically increase with SOA, leading to the typical response priming patterns in Fig. 2.〔 This implies that the more time is elapsing between prime and target, the larger the prime's influences on the response. For average response times of 350-450 ms, the response priming effect can become as large as 100 ms, making it one of the numerically largest effects in response time research. Results from many experiments show that the increase of priming with SOA occurs because the prime has an increasing amount of time to influence the response process before the actual target stimulus can come into play and control the motor response on its own. This is evident from the time-course of motor activity in the EEG,〔Leuthold, H., & Kopp, B. : ''Mechanisms of priming by masked stimuli: Inferences from event-related brain potentials.'' In: ''Psychological Science'', Nr. 9, 1998, p. 263-269.〕〔Eimer, M., & Schlaghecken, F. : ''Effects of masked stimuli on motor activation: Behavioral and electrophysiological evidence.'' In: ''Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance'', Nr. 24, 1998, p. 1737-1745.〕〔Eimer, M., & Schlaghecken, F. :''Response facilitation and inhibition in subliminal priming.'' In: ''Biological Psychology'', Nr. 64, 2003, p.7-26.〕〔Mattler, U.: ''Delayed flanker effects on lateralized readiness potentials.'' In: ''Experimental Brain Research'', Nr. 151, 2003, p. 272-288.〕〔Vath, N., & Schmidt, T. : ''Tracing sequential waves of rapid visuomotor activation in lateralized readiness potentials.'' In: ''Neuroscience'', Nr. 145, 2007, p. 197-208.〕 from primed pointing responses,〔Schmidt, T.: ''The finger in flight: Real-time motor control by visually masked color stimuli.'' In: ''Psychological Science'', Nr. 13, 2002, S. 112-118.〕〔Schmidt, T., Niehaus, S., & Nagel, A.: ''Primes and targets in rapid chases: Tracing sequential waves of motor activation.'' In: ''Behavioural Neuroscience'', Nr. 120, 2006, p. 1005-1016.〕〔Schmidt, T., & Schmidt, F.: ''Processing of natural images is feedforward: A simple behavioral test.'' In: ''Attention, Perception & Psychophysics'', Nr. 71, 2009, p. 594-606.〕 from measurements of response force,〔Mattler, U.: ''Flanker effects on motor output and the late-level response activation hypothesis.'' In: ''The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology'', Nr. 58A, 2005, p. 577-601.〕 and from simulation studies,〔 which all suggest that motor activation first occurs in the direction specified by the prime, and only then proceeds in the direction specified by the actual target. Therefore, the ultimate size of the priming effect depends both on properties of the stimuli and on properties of the task. Primes with high stimulus energy (e.g., higher contrast, longer duration) and tasks with easy stimulus discriminations lead to large priming effects, whereas primes with low stimulus energy and tasks with difficult discriminations lead to smaller effects.〔〔 Priming effects can be amplified by visual attention directed to the prime's position or to its relevant features just in time for the prime's appearance.〔Sumner, P., Tsai, P.-C., Yu, K., & Nachev, P.: ''Attentional modulation of sensorimotor processes in the absence of perceptual awareness.'' In: ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA'', Nr. 103, 2006, p. 10520-10525.〕〔Schmidt, T., & Seydell, A.: ''Visual attention amplifies response priming of pointing movements to color targets.'' In: ''Perception & Psychophysics'', Nr. 70, 2008, p. 443-455.〕〔Schmidt, F., & Schmidt, T.: ''Feature-based attention to unconscious shapes and colors.'' In: ''Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics'', Nr. 72, 2010, p. 1480-1494.〕 The time course of the response priming effect described so far only holds for SOAs up to about 100 ms. For longer SOAs, the priming effect can increase further. Under some circumstances, however, a reversal of the effect can be observed where inconsistent primes lead to faster responses to the target than do consistent primes. This effect is known as the "negative compatibility effect".〔〔〔Jaskowski, P.: ''The negative compatibility effect with nonmasking flankers: A case for mask-triggered inhibition hypothesis.'' In: ''Consciousness & Cognition'', Nr. 17, 2008, p. 765-777.〕〔Verleger, R., Jaskowski, P., Aydemir, A., van der Lubbe, R. H. J., & Groen, M.: ''Qualitative differences between conscious and nonconscious processing? On inverse priming induced by masked arrows.'' In: ''Journal of Experimental Psychology'', Nr. 133, 2004, p. 494-515.〕〔Lingnau, A., & Vorberg, D.: ''The time course of response inhibition in masked priming.'' In: ''Perception & Psychophysics'', Nr. 67, 2005, p. 545-557.〕〔Klapp, S. T., & Hinkley, L. B.: ''The negative compatibility effect: Unconscious inhibition influences reaction time and response selection.'' In: ''Journal of Experimental Psychology: General'', Nr. 131, 2002, p. 255-269.〕〔Sumner, P.: ''Negative and positive masked priming - implications for motor inhibition.'' In: ''Advances in Cognitive Psychology'', Nr. 3, 2007, p. 317-326.〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Response priming」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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